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Article History

Received: 5 October 2023

Accepted: 1 August 2024

First Online: 3 September 2024

Competing interests

: The first author of this paper is a member of the editorial board/associate editor of this journal. The manuscript is being assessed in line with the journal’s standard editorial processes.

: Study 1 involved only publicly available information, and therefore did not involve “human subjects” as defined by the U.S. Common Rule, specifically 45 CFR 46.102(e)(1). Therefore, the Common Rule and its informed consent requirements do not apply, nor is there any requirement for an IRB determination. Consistent with Geisinger IRB policy, the researchers made this determination themselves (after discussion with the Geisinger Research Ethics Advice and Consultation Service). Study 2 was determined by the Geisinger Institutional Review Board to be exempt from the U.S. Common Rule under 45 CFR 46.104(d)(2), including the Common Rule’s requirement of informed consent (45 CFR 46.116).

: This was not required, as outlined in the ethical approval statement.