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Article History

Received: 7 December 2023

Accepted: 29 October 2024

First Online: 2 December 2024

Competing interests

: The authors declare no competing interests.

: This article contains no research with human participants performed by any authors, and therefore ethical approval was not required, in line with institutional and national guidelines (e.g., Human Research Protection Program ; University of Cambridge ). The research was based on fully anonymized police records owned by Dorset Police, which did not involve any personal information, and all analyses were conducted on anonymized records. Written confirmation from the relevant ethics committee confirming that no approval was required is available upon request.

: Consistent with other studies (e.g., Howe et al. ; Santangelo et al. ), This article does not contain any studies with human participants performed by any of the authors, and therefore informed consent was not required or applicable. The dataset consisted of fully anonymized police records, and no individual-level identifiers were accessible to the research team. The lack of personal identifiers ensures that there is no risk to individuals’ privacy or rights. According to local and national ethical guidelines, including those provided by the University of Cambridge (), informed consent is required only when research involves human participants or their identifiable data.