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Article History

Received: 29 April 2024

Accepted: 28 November 2024

First Online: 4 December 2024

Competing interests

: The authors declare no competing interests.

: Ethical approval for the original data collection was obtained from the Institutional Review Board (IRB) at Renmin University of China prior to data collection. The secondary data used in this study were obtained from the publicly available 2021 Chinese General Social Survey (CGSS) dataset, which was anonymized to protect the privacy of participants. The data collection process adhered to the ethical guidelines established by the Survey and Data Center of Renmin University of China, ensuring that the data collection was conducted in compliance with the highest ethical standards. As the dataset was publicly available, no additional ethical approval was required for this study

: Informed consent was obtained from all participants at the time of data collection for the 2021 Chinese General Social Survey (CGSS). Participants were fully informed about the purpose of the survey, how their data would be used, and their rights to confidentiality. The data were anonymized to protect participants' identities. Since this study uses secondary data that have already been anonymized, no further informed consent was required from the study authors.