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Article History

Received: 4 January 2024

Accepted: 20 January 2025

First Online: 27 February 2025

Competing interests

: The authors declare no competing interests.

: Approval for this study was obtained from the Ethics Review Committee of Foshan University under the approval code FU-HREC054/2022 on February 17, 2022. All research procedures were conducted in strict compliance with the ethical principles outlined in the 1964 Declaration of Helsinki and its subsequent amendments, as well as other relevant ethical guidelines applicable to research involving human participants. This approval encompasses all aspects of the research, including participant recruitment, data collection, and analysis. As the study involved adult participants who do not belong to vulnerable populations (e.g., minors, indigenous people, pregnant women, persons with disabilities, individuals with mental disorders, or detainees), the Ethics Review Committee determined that the risks associated with participation were minimal, posing no greater harm than those encountered in daily life. Consequently, the study was granted an exemption from detailed ethical review under the committee’s guidelines. If the research commenced prior to obtaining formal approval, this was disclosed to the Ethics Review Committee, and approval was granted retrospectively with a full assessment of compliance with applicable regulations.

: Informed consent was obtained in writing from all participants prior to their involvement in the study. The consent process was conducted between March and May 2022 by the principal investigator and trained research assistants. A comprehensive consent form was provided to each participant, which clearly explained the purpose of the research, their rights as participants, and the scope of their consent. This included consent for participation in the study, the use of their data for research purposes, and the publication of findings. Participants were explicitly informed that their responses would remain anonymous and confidential, and they were assured that participation was entirely voluntary. They retained the right to withdraw from the study at any time without penalty or negative consequences. All participants were selected based on specific criteria, including enrollment as second-year or higher-level students at universities located in the eastern coastal cities of Mainland China. As the study involved competent adults capable of providing informed consent independently, no vulnerable populations or legal guardians were involved. Furthermore, no financial or material incentives were offered to participants. Since this was non-interventional research using surveys and questionnaires, participants were fully informed that their anonymity was guaranteed, that the research aimed to explore relationships among key academic and psychological variables, and that there were no foreseeable risks associated with their participation.