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Article History

Received: 9 October 2023

Accepted: 13 February 2025

First Online: 6 May 2025

Competing interests

: The authors declare no competing interests.

: This study utilized secondary data from the China Household Tracking Survey. All procedures performed in this research adhered to the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and complied with the 1964 Helsinki Declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards. As the study did not involve direct interaction with human participants, formal ethical approval was not required.

: Since this study analyzed secondary, anonymized data from the China Household Tracking Survey, obtaining informed consent from individual participants was not applicable. However, the original data collection process ensured that participants’ confidentiality and privacy were protected, with all personal information anonymized before data access.