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Article History

Received: 21 June 2023

Accepted: 19 February 2025

First Online: 4 March 2025

Competing interests

: The authors declare no competing interests.

: This study adhered to institutional research guidelines and the Declaration of Helsinki ethical principles. Ethical approval was exempted by the School of Journalism and Information Communication, Huazhong University of Science and Technology (November 2022) based on three criteria: (1) deployment of non-invasive, observational methods in public settings involving anonymized data collection, (2) implementation of rigorous data protection protocols following ISO/IEC 27001 standards, and (3) absence of psychological or physical intervention risks. All participants were consenting adults (≥18 years) who provided informed consent through questionnaire completion, with data anonymization ensuring no personal identifiers were retained throughout the research process.

: Participants were informed about the aim of the study, confidentiality of information, voluntary participation, and ability to opt out of the study if needed. Participants were informed through the question “Do you accept participation in this survey”. If they chose to “I accept to participate”, they could proceed the next page of the measures. All participants gave their agreement to participate in the study and consented to processing of their data.