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Article History

Received: 11 June 2024

Accepted: 7 March 2025

First Online: 24 March 2025

Competing interests

: The authors declare no competing interests.

: The British Social Attitudes (BSA) survey is an annual survey run by the National Centre for Social Research (NatCen) since 1983. The analysis reported in this study does not involve data on human participants collected by the authors. The paper is focused on publicly available data obtained from the National Centre for Social Research (NatCen) as described in the “Data availability” section above, for which ethics approval was granted internally by NatCen, following guidelines set by the Social Research Association and the Market Research Society. For more information visit the British Social Attitudes (BSA) information system website.

: Informed consent to use the data was granted to the UK Data Service under their ‘End User Licence Agreement’. Information on how participants were selected and informed consent to participate in the study are available in the “British Social Attitudes Survey, 2016, User Guide” documentation provided at .