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Article History

Received: 19 February 2024

Accepted: 3 April 2025

First Online: 11 April 2025

Competing interests

: The authors declare no competing interests.

: The data employed in this study were derived from the anonymized TALIS 2018 dataset officially released by the OECD. In accordance with user guide issued by OECD, the use of publicly available, fully de-identified data that underwent ethical review by the original data collectors exempts researchers from obtaining additional ethical approval at their affiliated institutions. This principle is explicitly supported by Article 8 of the Ethical Guidelines for Humanities and Social Sciences Research issued by the Ministry of Education of China. Throughout the analytical process, no attempts were made to reconstruct individual privacy information or conduct geolocation tracking, ensuring compliance with the ethical standards for secondary data analysis outlined in the Declaration of Helsinki (WMA, 2024).

: The data utilized in this study were obtained from publicly available datasets collected and anonymized by the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). As the original data underwent rigorous anonymization procedures, researchers are unable to identify any individual participants or institutional entities within the dataset. Consequently, this secondary analysis doesn’t need any requiring additional informed consent statements.