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Article History

Received: 5 August 2024

Accepted: 28 April 2025

First Online: 9 May 2025

Competing interests

: The authors declare no competing interests.

: All procedures performed in this study involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki Declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards. The study was approved by the Ethics Committee of Neuromanagement Laboratory of Zhejiang University on March 01, 2022 (NML_CLBP_2022_03).

: These experiments were conducted from May 2022 to March 2023. The procedure of obtaining informed consent is consistent across both online and offline experiments. In both experiments, participants were provided with detailed information before the start of the game regarding the study’s objectives, procedures, the use of their data, their right to withdraw at any time, and the compensation provided for their participation. To proceed, participants were required to confirm their informed consent by selecting the option: “I agree to proceed with the experiment.” on their personal smartphones. No vulnerable individuals were involved in the study.