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Article History

Received: 19 August 2024

Accepted: 20 May 2025

First Online: 30 May 2025

Competing interests

: The authors declare no competing interests.

: The US Health and Retirement Study (HRS) and the China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study (CHARLS) received ethical approval from the Health Sciences/Behavioral Sciences Institutional Review Board at the University of Michigan (Ann Arbor, MI, USA; HUM00061128) and the Biomedical Ethics Review Committee of Peking University (Beijing, China; IRB00001052–11015), respectively. The English Longitudinal Study of Ageing (ELSA) received ethical approvals for each wave of data collection as follows: Wave 3 was approved by the London Multi-Center Research Ethics Committee on 27 October 2005 (05/MRE02/63); Wave 4 by the National Hospital for Neurology and Neurosurgery & Institute of Neurology Joint Research Ethics Committee on 12 October 2007 (07/H0716/48); Wave 5 by the Berkshire Research Ethics Committee on 21 December 2009 (09/H0505/124); Wave 6 by the NRES Committee South Central – Berkshire on 28 November 2012 (11/SC/0374); and Wave 7 by the same committee on 28 November 2013 (13/SC/0532).

: Informed consent was not required for this secondary data analysis study.