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Authors
Ntodwa, Edson
Chirwa, Gowokani Chijere
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Article History
Received: 6 December 2024
Accepted: 30 May 2025
First Online: 1 September 2025
Competing interests
: The authors declare no competing interests.
: This study did not involve the collection or use of primary data. Instead, it was entirely based on secondary data, the Malawi Integrated Household Survey data (2019/2020) obtained from the National Statistical Office of Malawi (NSO)—the official government agency responsible for the collection and dissemination of national statistics. The data used were drawn from an existing survey conducted by the NSO, which follows strict ethical procedures and obtains approval from the National Commission for Science and Technology (NCST). As no new data were collected and no direct contact or interaction with human participants occurred, the study did not require additional ethical clearance from an Institutional Review Board (IRB). Moreover, the secondary dataset contained no personally identifiable or sensitive information. All analyses were conducted in accordance with standard academic practices, ensuring the anonymity and confidentiality of respondents. The research was carried out in full compliance with ethical guidelines, including the principles outlined in the Declaration of Helsinki and those set forth by the NCST.
: This study utilized secondary data from the 2019/2020 Malawi Integrated Household Survey, a nationally representative survey conducted by the National Statistical Office of Malawi (NSO). During the original data collection process, the NSO followed all established research protocols, including obtaining informed consent from participants. As the dataset was fully anonymized and made publicly accessible by the NSO prior to our use, this study did not involve any direct interaction or additional data collection from participants. Therefore, obtaining informed consent specifically for this research was not applicable. We confirm that the use of this secondary data complies with all relevant ethical guidelines and regulations. Throughout the analysis, the anonymity and confidentiality of all participants were strictly upheld.
