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Article History

Received: 5 November 2024

Accepted: 30 May 2025

First Online: 12 July 2025

Competing interests

: The authors declare no competing interests.

: This research received ethical approval from the Research Ethics Committee in Sultan Qaboos University (Ref No. REAAF/EDU/DEFA/2024/05) on April 17, 2024. It has also been granted approval from the Department of Educational Studies and International Cooperation in the Ministry of Education in Oman (Approval Number: 2824161852). The approval encompasses all data collection procedures involving human participants as outlined in the study’s methodology. All research activities were conducted in strict compliance with relevant institutional and national ethical guidelines, adhering to the principles established by the Declaration of Helsinki and its subsequent amendments. These guidelines ensure that the study upholds the highest ethical standards applicable to research involving human subjects.

: Written informed consent was obtained from all participating preservice teachers before the study commenced. This consent covered participation, data collection, and the publication of research findings. The consent process, conducted by the first author from April 25 and May 5, 2024, included detailed explanations regarding the study’s purpose, data use, and confidentiality measures, with assurances of anonymity for all participants. No minors were involved in this study.

: Artificial intelligence tools were used in this research solely to assist with translation and minor linguistic modifications, with all texts being manually reviewed to ensure scientific accuracy.