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Article History

Received: 17 October 2024

Accepted: 10 June 2025

First Online: 1 July 2025

Competing interests

: The author declares no competing interests.

: This study was approved by the Survey and Behavioural Research Ethics Committee (SBREC) of The Chinese University of Hong Kong (Approval No. SBRE-23-0067) on 10 March 2022. The research involved human participants and was conducted in accordance with the ethical standards outlined in the Declaration of Helsinki and all applicable institutional and national guidelines and regulations.

: Written informed consent was obtained from the legal guardians of all student participants prior to the PISA 2022 data collection in April 2022. The process was conducted by trained personnel under the supervision of the research team at The Chinese University of Hong Kong and followed the procedures approved by the Survey and Behavioural Research Ethics Committee. Guardians received written information about the study’s purpose, voluntary participation, procedures, and data use. Consent covered participation, use of anonymised data for research, and publication of aggregated results. Anonymity and confidentiality were assured in accordance with ethical guidelines and data protection regulations.