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Article History

Received: 4 November 2024

Accepted: 23 June 2025

First Online: 4 July 2025

Competing interests

: The authors declare no competing interests.

: This study was reviewed and approved by the Research Ethics Committee of the University of Nottingham Ningbo China in accordance with the University’s Code of Research Conduct and Research Ethics and the Declaration of Helsinki. Ethical approval was granted on 26 October 2023. The approval covers all procedures related to participant recruitment, data collection, and data handling described in the study.

: All participants received a detailed Participant Information Sheet explaining the nature, purpose, and procedures of the study. Written informed consent was obtained by the lead researcher from each participant between 26 November and 15 December 2023, prior to participation in the experiment. All participants signed the consent form in the NVIDIA Joint-Lab on Mixed Reality (Innovation and Enterprise Building, Room 360-1) at the University of Nottingham Ningbo China, where the experiment was conducted. The consent confirmed participants’ voluntary agreement to participate in the study, covered the use of anonymised data and quotes for research purposes, and assured confidentiality and the right to withdraw at any time without consequence.