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Article History

Received: 5 August 2024

Accepted: 21 July 2025

First Online: 7 August 2025

Competing interests

: The authors declare no competing interests.

: All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki Declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards. The study was approved by the Ethics Committee of Shandong Normal University (No. sdnu-2023-08-30-01). The approval was granted on August 30, 2023, prior to the commencement of the research. It covered the full scope of the study, including all procedures involving human participants, data collection methods, informed consent processes, and data storage and protection protocols.

: Written informed consent was obtained directly from all participants on the day of their participation. Specifically, consent was collected on September 15, 2023 (Study 1), October 20, 2023 (Study 2), and November 7, 2023 (Study 3) by the research team at Shandong Normal University. The scope of consent included voluntary participation, use of data for research purposes, and inclusion of anonymized data in publications. Participants were informed about the study’s purpose and procedures, assured of their right to withdraw at any time, and guaranteed anonymity and confidentiality. They were also informed that no foreseeable risks were associated with participation.