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Article History

Received: 13 January 2025

Accepted: 23 July 2025

First Online: 31 July 2025

Competing interests

: The author declare no competing interests.

: This study is based on publicly available anonymized data from the 2021 Chinese Social Survey (CSS), which was conducted and ethically approved by the Institute of Sociology at the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences (CASS). The original data collection followed the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki (1964) and its later amendments. As CSS does not publicly disclose an ethics approval reference number for the dataset, such a number is not available to secondary data users and is therefore not applicable. Because this study involved only the analysis of anonymized secondary data and did not include direct contact with human subjects, no additional ethics approval was required by the Research Ethics Committee of Chongqing University.

: Informed consent was obtained by the CSS research team during the original data collection process in 2021. Participants were informed about the purpose of the research, assured of voluntary participation, and guaranteed confidentiality. As the present study uses anonymized secondary data only, no new consent procedures were required.