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Article History

Received: 21 December 2024

Accepted: 28 July 2025

First Online: 20 August 2025

Competing interests

: The authors declare no competing interests.

: Ethical approval was obtained in advance from the Institutional Review Board (IRB) of the Jiangxi Psychological Consultant Association (IRB references blinded for peer review: JXSXL-2022-CL15 for primary, middle, and high school participants; and JXSXL-2022-Jul13 for university participants). Notably, the research involving university students and minor participants was funded by two distinct projects. This resulted in the variable of self-esteem not being collected among university students.

: Electronic informed consent was obtained through online consent forms by the author team according to the following timeline: For university students: consent was obtained from participants (aged 18 years and above) between August and October 2022, prior to data collection. For primary and middle school students: consent was obtained from guardians of minors between December 2022 and December 2023, prior to each phase of data collection. For high school students: consent was obtained from guardians of minors between August and September 2023, prior to data collection. The electronic consent forms clearly explained: (1) the purpose of the survey, (2) researchers’ affiliations, (3) privacy guarantees, and (4) data confidentiality measures. The scope of consent covered: (a) voluntary participation in the survey, (b) use of collected data for research purposes, (c) anonymous publication of aggregated results in academic journals, and (d) the right to withdraw from the study at any time without consequences.