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First Online: 23 August 2025

Competing interests

: The manuscript is original, and the author (Dr AAA) has conducted the study independently (data collection processes). The author has consented to submit this manuscript, which has not been published elsewhere and is not under consideration by any other journals. The researcher has had no conflicts of interest with any individual or organisation and has therefore submitted this manuscript to this Journal.

: The study was conducted with utmost consideration for ethics, including obtaining approval from Nigeria’s Social Science Ethics Review Committee, Name of the approval body: Nigeria’s Social Science Ethics Review Committee, University of Ibadan, Nigeria Confirmation that all research was performed under relevant guidelines/regulations applicable when human participants are involved: The researcher submitted a proposal for ethical approval before data collection, which was assessed and approved by the ethics review committee University of Ibadan and is in line with the human research ethics guidelines of the Declaration of Helsinki. The data was equally scrutinised by the body based on the approved interview protocol. Approval number or ID: The approval was obtained from Nigeria’s Social Science Ethical Review Committee with an assigned number (SSHREC/2021/0023). Date of approval: the date of approval for the study, July 28th 2022, before the research could commence. Scope of approval: The ethics committee reviews the interview protocols and the draft manuscript, which were subject to ratification by the West African Bioethics Committee for approval. The researcher also underwent a bioethics examination regarding ethical considerations in research. This aligns with the requirements of Nigeria’s Social Science Ethics Review Committee prior to obtaining ethical approval.

: Upon identifying study participants (networks and members of the community hubs in Illegal Artisanal Oil Refineries, artisanal oil refiners, security personnel, community members, and oil workers in the formal economy) through gatekeepers. The informed consent form was provided to participants for completion on January 23, 2023. Common to research in the illegal oil refineries terrain, participants provided verbal consent while being notified of their right to withdraw from the study at any point during the interview, should they feel that their rights have been violated or that their identities would be revealed or harmed. Notably, limited demographic data gathered from actors of artisanal refineries was withheld to safeguard ethical concerns regarding anonymity and maleficence. The consent covers participation in the study, the use of data, and the publication of results. The researcher adhered to all ethical standards and maintained participant confidentiality throughout the study, ensuring that no one’s identity was exposed. No minors or vulnerable groups were involved in the study.