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Authors
Zhang, Chunhui
Wang, Zhenhua
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Article History
Received: 27 September 2024
Accepted: 30 August 2025
First Online: 27 October 2025
Competing interests
: The authors declare no competing interests.
: Ethical approval was exempted in this research by China’s Civil Procedure Laws (Amendment 2023, Article 134), Personal Information Protection Law of the People’s Republic of China (Amendment 2021, Article 13). All video recordings in the China Court Trial Online ( ) are public for non-commercial purposes.
: Informed consent was exempted in this research as human images were used from prior recorded public courtroom videos. The China Court Trial Online has received informed consent from court participants under the governance of the Supreme Court of People’s Republic of China ( ).
