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Article History

Received: 28 October 2024

Accepted: 1 September 2025

First Online: 2 October 2025

Change Date: 9 October 2025

Change Type: Update

Change Details: In the Acknowledgements section, "No funding was provided for this study" should have read “Funding was provided by National Social Science Fund of China (Project No. 24BJY116).” The original article has been corrected.

Competing interests

: The authors declare no competing interests.

: We use secondary data from multiple waves of the Chinese General Social Survey (CGSS), a nationally representative survey conducted and administered by Chinese government agencies under legal and institutional authority. The data were collected by these agencies and made publicly available in anonymized form, with all personally identifiable information removed. As our research involves no direct interaction with human participants and uses data collected, processed, and released by government bodies under statutory frameworks, ethics clearance is not required. This is consistent with established research ethics standards for the use of publicly available secondary data.

: Informed consent was not sought because the research does not involve direct interaction with individuals or the collection of personal data. The data used are anonymized and publicly available, with all identifying information removed prior to release. As the data were collected by official agencies and released for research purposes under legal and institutional frameworks, the requirement for obtaining informed consent from individuals does not apply.