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Article History

Received: 8 October 2024

Accepted: 2 September 2025

First Online: 29 October 2025

Competing interests

: The authors declare no competing interests.

: This study was performed in line with the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki. Approval was granted by the Ethics Committee of the Key Laboratory of Brain-Machine Intelligence for Information Behavior (Ministry of Education and Shanghai), Shanghai International Studies University (Date December 10, 2021/No. 2021BC042). The approval covers all aspects of the research involving human participants. No modifications to the research protocol were made after the approval was obtained.

: Informed consent was obtained from all participants prior to their participation in the study. For Study 1, participants completed an online questionnaire after reading a detailed informed consent form (Date December 10-18, 2021). This form included information about the researchers, the purpose of the study, participants’ rights (including the right to withdraw at any time without penalty), and data handling procedures (detailing how personal information would be processed and the confidentiality measures). Participants voluntarily took part in the study based on a full understanding of this information. For Study 2, behavioral and EEG data were collected. Prior to the formal experiment, we obtained written informed consent from all participants regarding the EEG experiment (Date December 15-22, 2021). Since all participants were native Chinese, the consent forms were provided and signed in Chinese. Participants were fully informed about the nature of the study, their rights, and the handling of their personal data. These informed consents are not publicly available due to the privacy, but are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.