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Article History

Received: 2 April 2025

Accepted: 11 November 2025

First Online: 22 December 2025

Competing interests

: The authors declare no competing interests.

: This study was approved by the Ethics Committee of the Department of Psychology at Nanjing University on May 15, 2023 (Approval No. NJUPSY202304001). The study protocol was reviewed for its adherence to ethical principles regarding research involving human participants. The committee confirmed that the project complies with the ethical standards set out in the Declaration of Helsinki and relevant national regulations. All procedures involving human participants were conducted in accordance with these standards.

: This non-interventional study involved structured survey questionnaires. All participants were fully informed of the study’s purpose, assured of their anonymity, and made aware that their data would be used solely for academic research in an aggregated and anonymized form. They were also informed of their right to withdraw at any time without penalty and that there were no foreseeable risks associated with participation. Written or electronic informed consent was obtained from all participants between July and September 2023, prior to data collection. The informed written consent form was obtained from all participants before the data collection.