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Article History

Received: 17 February 2025

Accepted: 11 November 2025

First Online: 27 November 2025

Competing interests

: The authors declare no competing interests.

: Ethical approval for this study was obtained from the Ethics Committee of the Department of Psychology, School of Philosophy, Wuhan University (approval reference number: 2018050601; date of approval: 6 May 2018). The scope of this approval covered all study procedures, including participant recruitment, questionnaire survey, data collection, and data analysis, as described in the manuscript. All procedures were conducted in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and national research committees, as well as the Declaration of Helsinki and relevant guidelines and regulations. This study did not involve vulnerable or special populations.

: Written informed consent was obtained in person by the researcher prior to participation in the questionnaire survey conducted between September and December 2021. All participants were adult university students aged 18 or above, and no minors or other vulnerable populations were included. Each participant received a standardized written consent form outlining the study’s objectives and procedures, assuring anonymity and confidentiality, noting potential risks, and emphasizing the voluntary nature of participation and the right to decline or withdraw at any time without penalty. Before accessing the questionnaire, participants were required to read the consent form carefully and confirm their agreement by signing or electronically acknowledging consent. The form also granted permission for anonymized data to be used for academic research and publication purposes. The study involved no more than minimal risk and did not include any form of physical or psychological intervention. Through this process, all participants provided explicit informed consent prior to their inclusion in the study.