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Article History

Received: 11 February 2025

Accepted: 28 November 2025

First Online: 12 December 2025

Competing interests

: The authors declare no competing interests.

: Ethical approval for this study was granted by the Stanford University Institutional Review Board (Protocol 58251, October 1, 2020). Additionally, the School of Public Affairs at Zhejiang University issued an official authorization letter approving the implementation of the field research in China on October 5, 2020. It has been confirmed that the study protocol complies with the relevant laws and regulations of China and adheres to China’s ethical principles. Permissions to conduct the school-based surveys were obtained from local education authorities and school principals. All procedures performed in this study involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki Declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards. We were committed to preserving data privacy and confidentiality throughout the research process.

: Written informed consent was obtained from all participants and from their parents or legal guardians prior to the survey, which was conducted over a 7-day period from October 8 to 14, 2020. Participants were fully informed of their rights, the study’s purpose, procedures, and safeguards for protecting their personal information. To ensure confidentiality, adolescents were instructed not to discuss their responses during or after the survey, and all personal identifiers were removed from electronic files during data encryption.