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Article History

Received: 21 April 2024

Accepted: 18 December 2025

First Online: 8 January 2026

Competing interests

: The authors declare no competing interests.

: This study involved human participants and their data. All study procedures were conducted in strict compliance with the ethical standards formulated by Chinese institutional and national research ethics committees, as well as the principles specified in the Declaration of Helsinki ( ) and its subsequent revisions or equivalent ethical guidelines. Specifically, ethical approval for this research was granted by the Ethical Committee of the Bilingual Cognition and Development Lab at the Guangdong University of Foreign Studies (Approval Number: BCDL_2024001_011), this approval was officially issued on January 3, 2024, and remains valid for two years. The scope of this approval encompasses all aspects of the study, including participant recruitment, data collection, and data analysis. Throughout the entire research process, the rights, safety, privacy, and well-being of participants were rigorously safeguarded in accordance with the approved protocols and relevant Chinese regulations.

: Prior to this study, informed consent was obtained from all participants, who were adults aged 18 or above with full legal capacity (no vulnerable groups like minors or patients were involved). Data collection was conducted between January 4 and January 23, 2024. The online questionnaire’s first page served as a detailed informed consent form, outlining the study’s objectives, procedures, voluntary participation, data usage scope, anonymity/confidentiality measures, potential risks, and the right to withdraw without penalty. Participants could only access the main survey after reading and confirming consent via the option “Next (I wish to take part in this research)”. All responses were collected anonymously (no personally identifiable information was gathered), and the data will be used solely for academic research and published in anonymized form, fully protecting participants’ privacy and data security.