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Article History

Received: 30 September 2024

Accepted: 21 January 2026

First Online: 31 January 2026

Competing interests

: The authors declare no competing interests.

: Ethical approval was not required for this study under applicable national (Section 9, ICMR National Ethical Guidelines 2017, available at ( ) and institutional regulations, as the research involved an anonymous online survey of adult participants and did not collect sensitive personal data. According to the National Ethical Guidelines for Biomedical and Health Research Involving Human Participants (2017) issued by the Indian Council of Medical Research(ICMR), which encompass social and behavioural sciences research involving human participants, minimal-risk, anonymized surveys without sensitive personal data may be categorized by institutions as exempt from full ethics committee review, provided appropriate voluntary informed consent and confidentiality protections are in place. Participation was voluntary, and informed consent was implied by completing the survey after participants were informed about the study’s purpose, data use, and confidentiality. The survey did not collect any personally identifiable information, and all data were analysed in an anonymised and aggregated form. The survey does not include biological samples, medical procedures, deception, or any intervention that could cause physical, psychological, social, legal, or economic harm to participants. The information collected is non-sensitive in nature and pertains only to participants’ general socioeconomic characteristics and time-use/behavioural information relevant to the study’s research objectives. The research team affirms the following ethical commitments: 1. Voluntary Participation: Participation in the study is entirely voluntary. Respondents may decline to answer any question or withdraw from the survey at any time without penalty, loss of benefits, or consequence of any kind. 2. Informed Consent: All participants will be provided with a clear explanation of the purpose of the study, the nature of the questions, the expected duration of participation, potential risks and benefits, and their rights. Informed consent written or verbal, as approved by the ethics committee will be obtained before any data collection begins. 3. Confidentiality and Anonymity: All personal identifiers will be removed from the dataset. Data will be stored securely, encrypted where applicable, and accessible only to authorised research personnel. No identifiable information will be included in reports, publications, or shared datasets. Results will be reported only in aggregated form. 4. Minimisation of Risks: The study poses no risk to participants. Questions are non-sensitive, and interview procedures are designed to respect privacy and minimize any potential discomfort. Enumerators will be trained to handle interviews in a respectful, non-intrusive manner. 5. Data Protection and Secure Storage: All digital data will be stored on password-protected servers or secure cloud systems, and any physical documents will be kept in locked storage. Data will be destroyed or archived in accordance with institutional and national data management policies. 6. Respect and Cultural Sensitivity: The research team will conduct interviews in a culturally appropriate and respectful manner. Enumerators will undergo training on ethical conduct, gender sensitivity, and privacy protection. 7. No Vulnerable Groups Targeted: The study does not specifically target vulnerable populations. If vulnerable individuals participate, enumerators will ensure extra care in explaining the study, obtaining consent, and ensuring their comfort. 8. No Foreseeable Harm or Adverse Consequences: The survey does not involve any intervention or activity expected to cause distress or harm. The anticipated risks are no greater than those encountered in daily life. The research team certifies that the survey was conducted in accordance with the ICMR National Ethical Guidelines and international best practices for ethical research, including the Declaration of Helsinki, institutional ethics codes, and national regulations governing social science research.

: Written electronic informed consent was obtained from all adult participants prior to their involvement in the study. Participants were provided with an online consent form detailing the study’s objectives, procedures, potential risks, data usage, and confidentiality measures. They gave explicit consent for participation, data collection, data usage, and the publication of research findings. The survey was conducted from May 21, 2023, to April 13, 2024. This survey does not require any ethical approval under applicable national (Section 9, ICMR National Ethical Guidelines 2017. Participants were assured of complete anonymity throughout the study, and all personal data were used solely for research purposes. The study employed a survey-based analysis, and participants were not assigned to any category or group. This research did not involve any medical, psychological, or high-risk interventions, nor did it include vulnerable populations such as minors, patients, or refugees. No financial or material incentives were offered to participants. Participation was entirely voluntary, and participants retained the right to withdraw at any stage without penalty. Furthermore, they were informed that no foreseeable risks were associated with participation in this study.