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Article History

Received: 18 December 2024

Accepted: 5 February 2026

First Online: 19 February 2026

Competing interests

: The authors declare no competing interests.

: The study received ethical approval from the Research Ethics Committee of the School of Education at the University of Galway, Ireland, under approval number 28.10.2022 (approved October 28, 2022). The research protocol, Technology-based Instructional Designs to Enhance Indonesian Senior High School Students’ Self-Efficacy in Speaking English, was reviewed and approved by the University of Galway Research Ethics Committee prior to data collection. This research was conducted in accordance with the ethical principles set out in the Declaration of Helsinki (2013; amended 2024) and relevant institutional regulations, including Article 23(3), which requires prior independent ethics review. At the time of data collection in Pekanbaru, Indonesia, there was no local ethics review mechanism for doctoral-level social and educational research. Accordingly, the University of Galway ethics approval provided the independent ethics review for the study, and all participant safeguards described in the approved protocol were implemented in full. Written informed consent was obtained from all participants, and, for minors aged 16–18, parental/guardian consent and student assent were obtained. Procedures followed University policy and GDPR requirements to ensure confidentiality and anonymisation, voluntary participation (including the right to withdraw), secure data handling, and participant well-being throughout.

: Written informed consent was obtained by the researcher in January 2024 from all participants or from parents or legal guardians in the case of participants under 18 years old. Participants were explicitly informed that their participation was voluntary and that all data collected would be kept strictly confidential and anonymised in all reports and publications.