Document is current

Article History

Received: 2 May 2025

Accepted: 10 February 2026

First Online: 27 February 2026

Competing interests

: The authors declare no competing interests.

: This study was approved by the Behavioral and Social Sciences Ethical Review Committee (BSSERC) of Hohai University, China, with approval code: HHU-BSSERC/2024/039 on March 20, 2024. In accordance with Article 23 (paragraph 3) of the Declaration of Helsinki, and given that the empirical fieldwork was conducted in Pakistan, formal administrative and local ethical permission for community-based data collection was obtained from the Office of the Deputy Commissioner, Peshawar District, Government of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan (NOC Reference No: DC/PSH/NOC/019/2024, Date: April 11, 2024). The Deputy Commissioner’s office serves as the principal district-level authority responsible for authorizing academic field research, community access, and public engagement within its jurisdiction. Before the commencement of data collection, community-level coordination and facilitative permission were also obtained through relevant local government representatives to ensure appropriate community access, cultural sensitivity, and participant protection during fieldwork. All research procedures followed the ethical principles outlined in the 1964 Declaration of Helsinki and applicable national regulations in both the sponsoring and host countries. Researchers protected all the data using passwords and avoided sharing them with any other parties. All private and personal details were eliminated to make sure each participant was anonymous.

: All participants were clearly told about the study’s goals and were instructed according to their preference. Written and oral consent to participate was obtained before they participated in the study; the consent form was decided based on the situation and preferences of participants. Consents were obtained from the participants from June 19, 2024 (before the first interview) to October 24, 2024 (before the last interview). They were told they could withdraw at any point, and they agreed to the use of anonymous data in any future publications if the researchers decided to include them. If a participant experienced emotional distress during the study, the research team was trained to assist and guide them to the relevant support services, such as mental health counseling.