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Authors
Xie, Xin
Wang, Chen
Dai, Tianchen
Chen, Yang
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Funding
Funding for this research was provided by:
The Stable Support Program for Higher Education Institutions (General Program), Shenzhen Science and Technology Innovation Commission (GXWD20220817131619001)
The National Social Science Fund Youth Project of China (19CXW038)
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Article History
Received: 18 January 2025
Accepted: 12 February 2026
First Online: 26 February 2026
Competing interests
: The authors declare no competing interests.
: Ethical approval for this study was granted by the Academic Ethics Committee of Harbin Institute of Technology on September 15, 2024 (Approval No. HIT2024097). All research procedures involving human participants were conducted in accordance with relevant institutional guidelines and the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki. The approval covered the design-based educational research activities, including classroom observations, learning interaction analysis, and collection of non-sensitive feedback data.
: Informed consent was obtained from all participants prior to data collection. Written consent was provided by participants on October 21, 2024, following an explanation of the study objectives, research procedures, and data usage. Participants were informed that their participation was voluntary, that their anonymity would be preserved, and that the collected data would be used solely for academic research purposes. No vulnerable populations or minors were involved in this study.
