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Authors
Zhou, Jinyan
Zhu, Xudong
Tian, Xiaoping
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Funding
Funding for this research was provided by:
National Natural Science Foundation of China (72374028)
the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities (1253200031)
the Laboratory of Artificial Intelligence in Education, Faculty of Education, Beijing Normal University (FELAIE-WT202504)
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Article History
Received: 21 November 2024
Accepted: 2 March 2026
First Online: 13 March 2026
Competing interests
: The authors declare no competing interests.
: This study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki. The research protocol was reviewed and granted an ethical review exemption by the Ethics Committee of the Faculty of Education, Beijing Normal University on February 21, 2026 (IRB Number: BNU202602100027).
: Informed consent was obtained from all student participants and their legal guardians prior to the survey administration. The informed consent process was conducted between December 2016 and January 2017. Participants were informed of the voluntary nature of the study and their right to withdraw at any time.
