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Authors
Yavuz, Emine
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Funding
Funding for this research was provided by:
The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey (2219)
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Article History
Received: 26 June 2025
Accepted: 5 March 2026
First Online: 26 March 2026
Competing interests
: The author declare no competing interests.
: This study is based on secondary analysis of data from the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) 2018, coordinated by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). Ethical approval for the original data collection was obtained by the OECD and the relevant national authorities in participating countries in accordance with their respective ethical regulations and legal requirements. The authors did not collect any primary data and did not have access to personally identifiable information. The original PISA 2018 data are fully anonymized and publicly available. For the present study, missing values were handled using multiple imputation techniques, resulting in a derived dataset that differs from the original OECD-released data. This imputation procedure was conducted solely by the authors for analytical purposes and does not compromise participant confidentiality or ethical standards.
: Not applicable.
