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Article History

Received: 27 February 2025

Accepted: 9 March 2026

First Online: 2 April 2026

Competing interests

: The authors declare no competing interests.

: This study was conducted as part of a government-commissioned horizontal technical consulting project formally commissioned by the Office of the Standing Committee of the Jiaxing Municipal People’s Congress to Shanghai Jiao Tong University (contract signed on November 30, 2022; see attached contract). The research protocol and contract were formally reviewed and approved by the School of International and Public Affairs and the relevant university departments of Shanghai Jiao Tong University before implementation, as evidenced by the official contract stamp dated November 30, 2022. All procedures involving human participants were performed in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and national research committees and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments. Informed consent was obtained from all participants via the first page of the online questionnaire, which contained a complete written informed consent form. Participants were required to actively check a box stating “I understand the above information and agree to participate in this survey” before proceeding, thereby providing explicit and voluntary consent. Data collection and informed consent of Study 1 were obtained from December 1, 2022 to January 31, 2023. Data collection and informed consent of Study 2 were obtained from March 1, 2024 to March 31, 2025. Since participants completed the anonymous online questionnaire at their own pace during these windows, individual consent timestamps were not recorded; the date ranges represent when the informed consent mechanisms were active and accessible. The questionnaire was completely anonymous, collecting no personally identifiable information, and all data were encrypted and stored securely. This procedure complied with the Personal Information Protection Law of the People’s Republic of China and international ethical standards for social science research. According to Article 32 of the Ethical Review Measures for Life Science and Medical Research Involving Humans (China, 2023, jointly issued by the National Health Commission and other ministries), studies that use anonymized information data, cause no harm to participants, do not involve sensitive personal information, and have no commercial interests are exempt from formal ethical review. The research team affirms that the study fully complies with applicable Chinese laws and international ethical guidelines for social science research.

: Informed consent was obtained from all participants regarding the nature of the study, confidentiality of their data, and their right to withdraw at any time.