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Article History

Received: 7 June 2025

Accepted: 10 March 2026

First Online: 2 April 2026

Competing interests

: The authors declare no competing interests.

: The Korea Media Panel Survey (KMPS) is a national approved statistics program administered by the Korea Information Society Development Institute (KISDI; National Approved Statistics Designation No. 405001). The survey waves analyzed in this study were collected under KISDI’s governance for official statistics during the respective fieldwork periods (2012: 2012-06-04–2012-08-31; 2013: 2013-05-23–2013-07-28; 2014: 2014-05-15–2014-09-02; 2015: 2015-05-15–2015-08-07; 2016: 2016-05-25–2016-08-08), in accordance with applicable national research ethics guidelines and the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki. The present study involved secondary analysis of fully anonymized public-use data and therefore did not require additional institutional review.

: Informed consent was obtained from all participants by KISDI at the time of data collection for each wave used in this study (2012–2016) during the corresponding fieldwork periods (2012: 2012-06-04–2012-08-31; 2013: 2013-05-23–2013-07-28; 2014: 2014-05-15–2014-09-02; 2015: 2015-05-15–2015-08-07; 2016: 2016-05-25–2016-08-08). The authors accessed and analyzed only de-identified data made publicly available through the KISDI data portal and had no direct contact with participants.