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Article History

Received: 28 July 2025

Accepted: 20 March 2026

First Online: 9 April 2026

Ethical approval

: This study utilized publicly available data collected from the social media platform X (formerly Twitter) using the NodeXL data extraction tool. The research protocol was reviewed and approved by the Institutional Research Ethics Committee of Universitas Muhammadiyah Sumatera Utara, which determined that the study qualified for ethical approval because it involved the analysis of publicly accessible online content and did not include direct interaction with human participants or the collection of personally identifiable private information. The data were analyzed in aggregated form, and individual user identities were anonymized during the analysis process to ensure privacy protection. As the study was conducted within Indonesia and relied exclusively on publicly available digital communication data, no additional international ethical clearance was required. All research procedures were carried out in accordance with the relevant institutional research ethics guidelines, as well as internationally recognized standards for social media research and data privacy. The study also followed applicable ethical principles for internet-based research, ensuring that the collection, storage, and analysis of social media data respected user privacy and complied with platform data usage policies. In accordance with international research ethics principles, including the Declaration of Helsinki and applicable institutional guidelines, the study ensured that: only publicly accessible data were collected; data were aggregated and analyzed at the network level; no sensitive personal information was extracted or stored; and all data were securely stored and used exclusively for academic purposes. Because the research relied solely on publicly available digital trace data and did not involve human subject intervention, written informed consent from individual social media users was not required under institutional guidelines. The Ethics Committee determined that the study posed minimal risk to individuals and approved its implementation under the University’s Research Ethics Standards and Guidelines.

: The authors declare no competing interests.

: This study did not involve direct human participants, interviews, surveys, or experimental procedures requiring informed consent. The research relied exclusively on publicly available data obtained from the social media platform X (formerly Twitter) through the NodeXL data extraction tool. All analyzed content consisted of publicly accessible posts and interactions that users voluntarily shared on the platform. No private accounts, restricted data, or personally identifiable sensitive information were collected or analyzed. Therefore, informed consent from individual users was not required in accordance with institutional research ethics guidelines and standard ethical practices for studies involving publicly available social media data. The data were analyzed in aggregated form to ensure user anonymity and protect individual privacy.