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Article History

Received: 12 July 2025

Accepted: 31 March 2026

First Online: 13 April 2026

Competing interests

: The authors declare no competing interests.

: This study was conducted in strict accordance with the ethical principles outlined in the Declaration of Helsinki and the University of Macau’s Research Ethics Policy and Guidelines on Research Involving Human Participants. Ethical approval was granted by the Panel on Research Ethics of the University of Macau (Reference No: SSHRE24-APP080-FSS) on July 12, 2024, prior to the commencement of data collection. Preparatory work, including recruitment planning, coordination with school administrators, and preparation of study materials, had been completed in advance. Upon receiving ethical approval, the research team promptly initiated the informed consent process and data collection in accordance with the approved protocol. The approved protocol encompassed all aspects of the study, including participant recruitment, data collection procedures, anonymity and confidentiality assurances, and data analysis.

: Informed consent was obtained from all participants and their legal guardians on July 14, 2024. In early July 2024, paper questionnaires and consent forms were distributed to randomly selected students. Students took the materials home to review with their guardians. Consent was given by ticking the agreement box on the form. Completed forms and questionnaires were returned during an evening study session. The procedure adhered to approved ethical guidelines, ensuring voluntary participation, anonymity, and the right to withdraw at any time.