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Article History

Received: 6 October 2025

Accepted: 27 April 2026

First Online: 27 May 2026

Competing interests

: The authors declare no competing interests.

: This study involving human participants was reviewed and approved by the Ethics Committee for Research Involving Human Participants at Shanghai Jiao Tong University (Approval No. H20240373I). Ethical approval was granted on July 31, 2024, following a full review and defence procedure conducted by the institutional ethics committee. The approval covers all procedures related to the collection of questionnaire data from adolescents under the age of 18 and ensures compliance with the Administrative Measures for Science and Technology Ethics Review (Trial) issued jointly by ten ministries and commissions of the People’s Republic of China, including the Ministry of Science and Technology and the Ministry of Education. All research activities were conducted in accordance with relevant institutional and national ethical guidelines and regulations, as well as with the principles of the 1964 Declaration of Helsinki and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.

: As the study involved minors under the age of 18, written informed consent was first obtained from participants’ parents or legal guardians and the schools’ academic affairs offices between August 25 and September 1, 2024. Subsequently, written informed consent was obtained directly from the adolescent participants themselves, in different batches between September 9 and September 28, 2024, prior to the administration of the formal questionnaire survey. All participants (and/or their legal guardians) were fully informed of the study’s purpose, content, and procedures; assured of the confidentiality and anonymity of their responses; and informed that their participation was entirely voluntary. No identifying personal information was collected or disclosed at any stage of the research.