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Article History

Received: 10 November 2025

Accepted: 20 May 2026

First Online: 28 May 2026

Competing interests

: The authors declare no competing interests.

: All procedures performed in this study involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki Declaration and its later amendments. Formal approval was obtained from the Ethics Committee of the Faculty of Education, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (Reference No. KPM.600-3/2/3-eras(20340)). This approval covered the entire investigative scope, including field data collection involving Chinese adolescents conducted between May 23 and September 30, 2024. Adhering to the normative framework for research involving minors, written informed consent was obtained from legally authorized representatives, and individual written assent was secured from all participants prior to data collection.

: Written informed consent was obtained from the parents or legal guardians of all individual participants included in the study. Additionally, written assent was obtained from the adolescent participants themselves prior to data collection. Participation was strictly voluntary, and all participants were explicitly informed of their right to withdraw from the study at any time without any penalty.