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Authors
Li, Fangxuan Sam
Su, Qianqian
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Funding
Funding for this research was provided by:
National Natural Science Foundation of China (72502075)
Guangdong Provincial Philosophy and Social Sciences Planning Project (GD26CSG03)
Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities of the South China University of Technology (QNZD2501)
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Article History
Received: 5 April 2025
Accepted: 31 May 2026
First Online: 8 June 2026
Competing interests
: The authors declare no competing interests.
: Ethical approval for this study was formally sought from the Institutional Review Board (IRB) of Hainan University prior to data collection. The IRB determined that the study qualified for an exemption from full ethical review under the Institutional Guidelines for Scientific Research Ethics Review on 7th January 2025. The exemption was granted on the basis that the research involved only voluntary, online questionnaire-based data collection, did not concern life science or medical issues, did not involve biospecimens, health records, or sensitive personal information, and posed no foreseeable physical or psychological risk to participants. The procedures employed in this study adhered to the ethical standards outlined in the Declaration of Helsinki. All participants provided informed consent before participation. The survey was anonymous, participation was voluntary, and respondents were free to withdraw at any time without consequence. All data were analysed in aggregate form.
: Informed consent was obtained from all participants prior to their participation. Specifically, informed consent was obtained during the pretests (10–12 January 2025), Study 1 (13–20 January 2025), Study 2 (21–27 January 2025), and Study 3 (6–13 February 2025). Participants were informed that their participation was entirely voluntary and that they could withdraw at any time without penalty. They were told that the data would be used exclusively for scientific research purposes and analysed solely by the authors. Participants were also informed of their legal rights and applicable data protection regulations. Due to strict privacy protection procedures, no personally identifiable information was retained after data collection. All participants were of legal age and provided consent under these conditions. This manuscript does not contain any individual-level identifying information, images, or videos of participants.
