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Article History

Received: 27 May 2025

Accepted: 6 June 2026

First Online: 12 June 2026

Competing interests

: The authors declare no competing interests.

: All data were anonymized before analysis. Thus, no identifying information was preserved after the various indices of students’ performance were matched. Informed consent was obtained from participants (January 2023 and 2024). The data-collection process, including the written informed consent form, was approved by the Deanship of Research of the hosting institution (PMU-DoR-2023-2024-11b) to comply with the guidelines of educational research set by the Office for Human Research Protections of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (October 2, 2022).

: Informed consent to participate and data use in our study was freely given by the participants of our study. The written informed consent form was deemed to comply with the APA guidelines for the ethical treatment of human participants (approval date: October 2, 2022). Such guidelines are consistent with those set by the Office for Human Research Protections of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. The study was conducted in each semester of two consecutive academic years to keep HSDL and PSDL conditions separate (2023–2024). Therefore, informed consent was collected during the first month of each semester (Spring 2023 and Spring 2024).