Yildirim, Ulku Hilal
Kayhan Atilgan, Yasemin
Ersel, Derya
Article History
Received: 16 March 2025
Accepted: 29 June 2026
First Online: 9 July 2026
Competing interests
: The authors declare no competing interests.
: The ethical approval for all individual participants in each country/economy in PISA 2018 has been officially completed by the OECD.
: The informed consent for all individual participants in each country/economy in PISA 2018 has been officially completed by the OECD.