Bernardo, Allan B. I. http://orcid.org/0000-0003-3938-266X
Cordel, Macario O. II
Calleja, Marissa Ortiz
Teves, Jude Michael M.
Yap, Sashmir A.
Chua, Unisse C.
Article History
Received: 12 September 2022
Accepted: 18 April 2023
First Online: 3 May 2023
Competing interests
: The authors declare no competing interests.
: The study involved secondary analyses of the officially published PISA 2018 dataset; as such ethics review and approval and informed consent does not apply. This dataset was downloaded as a public use file from the OECD website (ExternalRef removed, accessed 17 Feb 2020).
: This paper involved no primary data collection on the part of the authors. However, PISA 2018 data collection procedures indicate that parents of the students who participated in the assessment provided informed consent.