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Authors
Sacco, Samuel
Kapp, Joshua D.
Nguyen, Remy
Rao, Isha S.
Green, Richard E.
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Funding
Funding for this research was provided by:
National Science Foundation, United States (#2240310)
National Institute of Justice, United States (#2020-DQ-BX-0014)
National Institute of Justice, United States (15PNIJ-23-GG-01948-RESS)
National Institute of Justice, United States (#2020-DQ-BX-0014)
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Article History
Received: 24 October 2025
Accepted: 16 December 2025
First Online: 20 February 2026
Declarations
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: Approval of this study was obtained from the University of California Santa Cruz institutional review board protocol # UCSC HS-FY2025-37. All research was conducted in accordance with the Belmont Report’s Ethical Principles and Guidelines for the Protection of Human Subjects in Research while complying with federal regulations, state laws, and University of California (UC) policies.
: The described methods are the subject of a patent application filed by the University of California, Santa Cruz of which REG, JK, and SS are listed as inventors. REG is founder of Astrea Forensics. REG and JK are consultants for Astrea Forensics.
