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Article History

Received: 28 October 2025

Accepted: 15 December 2025

First Online: 20 December 2025

Declarations

:

: Ethical approval was obtained from the Institutional Review Board (IRB) of the Tigray Health Research Institute (Ref No.: THRI/59/2024). Permission for specimen collection from the dairy farms was obtained from the Livestock Development Department of the Tigray Regional Agriculture Bureau, in compliance with regional legislation regarding research and specimen collection. In addition, the owners of the participating dairy farms consented to the collection of samples from their animals, environments, and workers.The study involving human participants was conducted in accordance with the ethical principles of the Declaration of Helsinki. Before sample collection, all participating dairy farm owners and/or milkers were informed about the purpose of the study, the type and method of sample collection, and any potential benefits or risks associated with their participation. Oral informed consent was obtained from each participant, as approved by the IRB.To safeguard participant privacy, strict confidentiality was maintained for all collected data, including demographic information and microbiological analysis outcomes. Anonymity was ensured by securely de-identifying all personal identifiers from the dataset during data processing, statistical analysis, and report writing.

: Not applicable.

: The authors declare no competing interests.