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Article History

Received: 19 June 2025

Accepted: 2 January 2026

First Online: 13 January 2026

Declarations

:

: This study did not involve human participants, human biological materials or identifiable personal data; therefore, the ethical principles outlined in the Declaration of Helsinki are acknowledged but not directly applicable. As this study included only environmental sampling (litter and soil) from poultry farms, ethical approval for this research was obtained from the Nepal Veterinary Council (Reference No. 150/2080/81) to ensure ethical integrity and adherence to national regulations (Supplementary file 3). All procedures were conducted in accordance with applicable ethical guidelines and approved protocols. However, verbal informed consent was obtained from all poultry farm owners prior to sample collection.

: Not applicable.

: The authors declare no competing interests.

: Statements.