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Article History

Received: 1 March 2024

Accepted: 16 December 2024

First Online: 4 January 2025

Declarations

:

: The University of Iowa Institutional Review Board determined that this retrospective cohort study #202306541 does not meet the regulatory definition of human subjects research. The University of Iowa IRB therefore deemed that additional ethical approval and informed consent were unnecessary according to US national regulations. The IRB determination letter is included in supplemental content. There is no clinical trial number because this is not a clinical trial. A tutorial on US law prepared by the US Office for Human Research Protections that describes what is not human subjects research starts on page 8: .

: Not applicable.

: The Division of Management Consulting of the University of Iowa’s Department of Anesthesia provides consultations to hospitals and corporations. Dr. Dexter receives no funds personally other than his salary and allowable expense reimbursements from the University of Iowa and has tenure with no incentive program. He and his family have no financial holdings in any company related to his work other than indirectly through mutual funds for retirement. Income from the Division's consulting work is used to fund Division research. A list of all the Division’s consults is available in his posted curriculum vitae at . Drs. Marian and Epstein have no competing interests. The opinions expressed in this paper are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of Merck Sharp & Dohme LLC, a subsidiary of Merck & Co., Inc., Rahway, NJ, USA.