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Authors
Woldemariam, Asrat Ayele
Zhou, Yingchun
Qiu, Yuqi
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Funding
Funding for this research was provided by:
Shanghai "Science and Technology Innovation Action Plan" Computational Biology Key Project (23JS1400500 and 23JS1400800)
Shanghai Natural Science Foundation (24ZR1420400)
Shanghai Municipal Education Commission (2024AI01002)
National Natural Science Foundation of China (12401347, 12571283 and 72331005)
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Article History
Received: 10 December 2025
Accepted: 9 February 2026
First Online: 20 February 2026
Declarations
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: The original surveys (2008, 2013, and 2018 Sierra Leone Demographic and Health Surveys) were conducted by the DHS Program in compliance with ethical standards, including the Declaration of Helsinki. Ethical approval for each survey was obtained from the relevant national ethics committees in Sierra Leone, and informed consent was obtained from all participants. This study involved secondary analysis of de-identified, publicly available data; therefore, no additional ethical approval was required.
: Not applicable.
: The authors declare no competing interests.
