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Article History

Received: 6 September 2024

Accepted: 14 October 2025

First Online: 10 November 2025

Declarations

:

: This study utilized fully anonymized, publicly available data from national public health institutes of the Netherlands (RIVM), Germany (RKI), and Belgium (Sciensano). In accordance with national legislation and institutional requirements, written informed consent was not required for the participation in this study. No additional administrative permissions were necessary to access the data, as it was freely available and complied with existing laws and regulations, including those related to privacy protection. Given that the data used was aggregated, anonymous, and publicly accessible, ethical approval from the Maastricht University Ethics Committee was not deemed necessary.

: Not applicable.

: The authors declare no competing interests.