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Article History

Received: 31 August 2024

Accepted: 27 November 2025

First Online: 17 December 2025

Declarations

:

: Ethical approval for MAL-ED was obtained from the institutional review boards at the University of Virginia School of Medicine (Charlottesville, VA) (14595), and at each of the participating research sites: Ethical Review Committee, International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh (Bangladesh); Committee for Ethics in Research, Universidade Federal do Ceara, and National Ethical Research Committee, Health Ministry, Council of National Health (Brazil); Institutional Review Board, Christian Medical College, Vellore, and Health Ministry Screening Committee, Indian Council of Medical Research (India); Institutional Review Board, Institute of Medicine, Tribhuvan University, Ethical Review Board, Nepal Health Research Council, and Institutional Review Board, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research (Nepal); Institutional Review Board, Johns Hopkins University, and PRISMA Ethics Committee; Health Ministry, Loreto (Peru); Ethical Review Committee, Aga Khan University (Pakistan); Health, Safety and Research Ethics Committee, University of Venda, and Department of Health and Social Development, Limpopo Provincial Government (South Africa); and Medical Research Coordinating Committee, National Institute for Medical Research, and Chief Medical Officer, Ministry of Health and Social Welfare (Tanzania). The secondary analysis was conducted after MAL-ED’s completion with de-identified data and was deemed not to meet the definition of human subjects research.

: Not applicable.

: The authors declare no competing interests.