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Article History

Received: 24 August 2025

Accepted: 13 January 2026

First Online: 29 January 2026

Declarations

:

: A primary ethics vote was obtained at the Ethics Committee of the Department of Medicine at the University of Cologne on 2023-04-24 (local ethics ID approval 23–1143-retro), as the University Hospital Cologne was the leading study site. The participating study site received their local ethics vote at the respective ethics commission. Since documentation was retrospective and anonymised, no signed consent to participate was required from individual patients.

: Not applicable.

: The authors declare the following financial interests/personal relationships which may be considered as potential competing interests: SMWH has received research and travel grants from Astellas, MSD, and Tillotts; research grants from Basilea, Gilead, and 3 M, travel grants from Pfizer, and lecture honoraria from Astellas, MSD, and Tillotts. ME received travel grants from Tillotts and Pfizer. JJV has received research grants from MSD, Gilead, Pfizer, Astellas Pharma, Basilea, German Centre for Infection Research (DZIF), German Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF), Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt (DLR), University of Bristol, Rigshospitalet Copenhagen, German Network University Medicine, German Cancer Consortium (DKTK), German Federal Ministry of Health (BMG), European Union, lecture honoraria from MSD, Gilead, Pfizer, Astellas Pharma, Basilea, German Centre for Infection Research (DZIF), University Hospital Freiburg/ Congress and Communication, Academy for Infectious Medicine, University Manchester, German Society for Infectious Diseases (DGI), Ärztekammer Nordrhein, Ärztekammer Hessen, University Hospital Aachen, Back Bay Strategies, German Society for Internal Medicine (DGIM), Shionogi, Molecular Health, Netzwerk Universitätsmedizin, Janssen, NordForsk, Biontech, APOGEPHA, German Cancer Consortium (DKTK), University Hospital Oldenburg, meeting and travel support from German Centre for Infection Research (DZIF), University Manchester, German Society for Infectious Diseases (DGI), University Hospital Aachen, German Society for Internal Medicine (DGIM), Netzwerk Universitätsmedizin, German Cancer Consortium (DKTK), and advisory board fees from MSD, Gilead, Pfizer, Astellas Pharma, Basilea, German Centre for Infection Research (DZIF), Academy for Infectious Medicine, University Manchester, German Society for Infectious Diseases (DGI), German Society for Internal Medicine (DGIM), Netzwerk Universitätsmedizin, Janssen, Biontech. MJGTV has received research grants from MSD, Heel, Roche and Tillotts, consulting fees from GILEAD, Tillotts, Pfizer, Bioaster, GSK, Ecraid, and lecture honoraria from Akademie für Infektionsmedizin, Astra Zeneca, bioMerieux, DGI, European Society of Neurogastroenterology, Falk Foundation, FomF GmbH, GILEAD, GSK, Helios Kliniken, Hessisches Landessozialgericht, Infektio Forum, Janssen Cilag GmbH, Klinikum Kassel, Landesärztekammer Hessen, LMU Kliniken, MSD, Pfizer, Streamed up, St. Vincent Hospital, Tillotts. SMP received travel grants and lecture honoraria from Tillotts. IA and NP have no conflicts of interest.