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Article History

Received: 4 December 2025

Accepted: 9 March 2026

First Online: 11 April 2026

Declarations

:

: The data used in this study were obtained from the publicly available MIMIC (Medical Information Mart for Intensive Care) and eICU-CRD. The use of the MIMIC database was approved by the Institutional Review Boards (IRBs) of Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. The use of the eICU-CRD database was approved by the IRBs of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and Philips Healthcare. Both databases contain de-identified patient information in compliance with the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA). As all data are fully anonymized and publicly accessible, the requirement for written informed consent was waived by the corresponding IRBs. Given the anonymized nature and standardized structure of the database, additional ethical approval was not required for the present study. All methods were carried out in accordance with relevant guidelines and regulations stated in the Declaration of Helsinki.

: Not applicable.

: The authors declare no competing interests.